Teachers Take Charge of Their Learning:
Transforming Professional Development for Student Success

V. FINDING THE REVENUES TO SUPPORT HIGH-QUALITY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

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We do not have full information about how much states and districts currently spend on professional development. Various studies recommend increasing expenditures by specific amounts or percentages, but the job of teaching envisioned and recommended by this report suggests a long-range goal of institutionalizing such expenditures and requiring all education funds to be supportive of teaching and learning. New expenditures may also be necessary to build high-quality professional development into the foundation of the teaching job. These can be calculated if states and districts will undertake an assessment of their current professional development expenditures, agree with teachers' organizations on appropriate measures of professional development effectiveness, and gain public support for new appropriations as needed.

Recommendations

Appendix A: Sources of this Report

Appendix B: Other Organizations

Bibliography

The changes recommended in this report amount to a reconception of the teaching job and the institution called school in order to nurture good teaching and high achievement for all students. Given a vision of teachers as lifelong learners and of their learning as an essential part of the teaching job, and given the purpose of school as the academic and civic development of children, the entire budget and all activities of schools should focus on the improvement of teaching and learning.

To try to separate the costs of professional development from the costs of instruction poses dilemmas. The Greenberg survey results show that teachers define professional development as anything that improves instruction and student achievement. When teachers are attending a graduate school course or a conference, one can argue that such work is identifiably professional development. Yet when a group of teachers is studying student portfolios and developing for the first time a set of rubrics for good, average, and below-average writing, it is impossible to determine where instructional activity leaves off and professional development begins. Teachers also tell us that interactions with students constitute professional development. As they work with students, teachers get feedback on the effectiveness of their teaching, they learn new things directly, and they receive food for reflection on how to proceed. This report proposes a view of the teaching job as thoughtful interaction with students, teachers, parents, administrators, and community partners and as a learning experience in schools that are model learning organizations.

This may explain why researchers and policy advisers have been troubled when asked to investigate questions of current expenditures on professional development and proposed changes or increases in such expenditures. For instance, most school districts offer special salary increments for teachers who earn graduate degrees and credits, which can be considered a professional development investment. The costs of faculty supervision, provision of district-led professional development workshops and programs, early release days, and professional days set aside for teachers' planning and learning are also among the major costs usually entered in calculations of district expenditures (Corcoran 1995b, 18­19).

Sometimes such expenditures on identifiable professional development have been compiled and percentages of operating budget calculated (Miller, Lord, and Dorney 1994). Deriving such figures and estimates is difficult, however. Few districts have a single identifiable professional development division or budget. Categorical programs, such as Titles I and II of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, filter into schools via states with some funds specified or mandated for professional development; some of these funds are defined as state expenditures and counted again as district expenditures when states make grants to districts. The relation between state and district expenditures is further complicated by state support for "intermediate units" at county or regional levels that organize professional development, and states run conferences and workshops, send consultants to schools, subsidize college-based courses and programs for teachers, and reimburse districts for local budget increases resulting from teachers' earned graduate credit and salary increments (Corcoran 1995b, 19).

Reporting for the National Governors' Association, Thomas Corcoran recently estimated that 4 to 7 percent of district, less than 1 to more than 3 percent of state, and substantial figures for federal programs (not fully calculated from all sources, which is yet another and even more complex problem) are currently being spent on professional development. His conclusion was that significant public revenues are already dedicated by all levels of government to teachers' learning but that adequate accountability for their effectiveness is lacking (Corcoran 1995b, 19).

When recommending levels of expenditures to support NFIE's approach to professional development, one could use analogies from successful businesses and other professions or establish preferred percentages of time in which teachers would be engaged in professional development and then translate the time into personnel costs. The National Staff Development Council passed a resolution in 1996 calling for 10 percent of district budgets to be set aside for professional development and "25 percent of educator's work time . . . devoted to learning and collaboration with colleagues" (1996, 1). The National Commission on Teaching and America's Future discusses adding at least 1 percent to current education expenditures in each state, with a goal over time of 3 percent new expenditures, to be tied to results as measured by standards, and an additional 1 percent in new district-level matching funds.

According to analysts of corporate restructuring, "Leading U.S. companies--such as General Electric, IBM, Hewlett-Packard, ATT, Xerox, and Motorola--spend anywhere from $1,150 to $3,500 per employee annually on education and training" (Berger and Sikora 1994, 217). Berger and Sikora go on to excoriate these companies for spending too little on personnel learning. A major study of schools found comparable levels of expenditures in public schools. The Miller, Lord, and Dorney study (1994) identified a range of $1,755 to $3,529 spent per classroom teacher in four case studies.

The long-term goal is to integrate learning into the job of teaching and to perceive of expenditures on increasing teachers' quality as synonymous with school budgets as a whole. At present, however, the system separates expenditures on teachers' learning from expenditures on teachers' instructional work. To get from the present isolation of instruction from professional development to the goal of fully integrating these activities, interim stages to align the expenditures will have to occur. The issue is less one of segregating identifiable costs of professional development than one of creating a learning organization totally devoted to improving instruction and student achievement. Procter & Gamble's Senior Vice President Robert Wehling points out that in businesses that are reconceiving themselves as learning organizations, corporate expenditures should be seen in context: The learning is part and parcel of the employee's job, occurring through reflective practice, teamwork, and the entire focus of the organization, not just an identified pullout or special event.

The cost of introducing technology to teachers has received special attention of late. According to the Office of Technology Assessment's Teachers and Technology study, Florida recently required that 30 percent of its technology-related allocation to schools be earmarked for training. Similarly, Texas recommended that school districts new to the use of technology set aside 30 percent of their technology funds for professional development, and the state of Washington spends 40 percent of its school technology budget on training (U. S. Congress 1995, 137).

Major transformations of teaching practice, such as the use of portfolios in the Pittsburgh Public Schools from the mid-1980s to early 1990s, have been successfully introduced into schools at an annual per-teacher cost of $6,000 in each of four years of intensive work (Rényi 1994a). These costs covered extra staff development hours beyond the regular school day on a weekly or biweekly basis throughout the school year, intensive summer institutes, consultants, materials, and release time for teacher leaders and administrators. To implement major changes (e.g., introducing project-based curricula, portfolio assessment, or similar large-scale major changes in schoolwide practice), one-quarter of each school faculty should be engaged annually in an intensive level of work (one month per summer and weekly study throughout the school year for a minimum of three years) using district and state matching funds. Funds at this level can already be found in many districts through devolving district-level expenditures on professional growth to schools and coordinating categorical programs (e.g., Title I and Title II) and state and other local professional development budgets. The key here is to focus on priorities and align district and school revenues and policy for new learning to implement programs over a sufficient period of time to ensure the desired changes in practice. When such programs are designed to reach all faculty in a school or district over time, one-fourth of the faculty typically enters the program in each year and a minimum of seven years is required to observe and assess changed practice in all classrooms.

Such transformations of practice are now expected from the use of information technologies as major vehicles for learning. The pressure to introduce technology and concurrent recognition that training is essential are comparable to the scale and level of consensus in the public's endorsement of the professional development in mathematics, science, and foreign languages called for in the 1960s following the launching of Sputnik. Some of the programs initiated then continue to support enhancements of these subjects today through grants from federal agencies. It is generally believed that technology training will need to intensify for a period of time while current teachers get up to speed and while we await a new generation of teachers to arrive on the job already technologically sophisticated. At present, however, choosing how much to spend on such preparedness education for teachers in a fast-changing world is a decision that seems to be made by districts, states, and even federal agencies on the basis of little factual knowledge of available revenues and needed new revenues.

NFIE's review of the new tasks and challenges that career teachers have faced since Sputnik suggests that there has been a steady stream of new work expected of schools, ever-higher expectations for achievement, and inclusion of an ever-larger percentage of the student population in that high achievement. With growing poverty among the nation's children, the ability of our public schools to keep producing better results for more students will depend for the foreseeable future on ever-harder work, better teaching, and constant effort to accommodate what is new. Although the current pressure for technology training may abate in future years, some other new changes will certainly arise to take its place. We might very well expect to introduce massive professional development initiatives on the scale of the mathematics and science push of the 1960s and the technology push of the 1990s for each generation to come. At the same time, ongoing professional development to help teachers keep up with all developments in subject matter, teaching methods, child development, social change, and school management will continue to be staples of the business of schooling.

To find the revenues for all this work, set-aside funding for professional development will be necessary at all levels. But set-asides are vulnerable to budget cuts in hard times and when new policymakers take office to enact new agendas.

Nowhere in the United States are all the pieces needed for reform in place, yet everywhere we see the hard work beginning. Genuine reform can take place if we invest in what teachers know and can do on a large scale. Those teachers are "the unsung heroes of the nation"--dedicated, hardworking, and overwhelmed (Boyer 1995, 6). The 3 million women and men who get up every morning to go to school need to become 3 million who go there to teach and to learn.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Find the Revenues to Support High-Quality Professional Development

The work ahead must begin with finding out reliably what is already being spent on teachers' professional development, whether it is being spent efficiently, and whether it is adequate to keeping up with change and enabling students to flourish. States and districts should work with community partners and teachers to reallocate existing and appropriate new revenues sufficient to guarantee standards-referenced, quality teaching and learning in every public school. The long-range goal over a period of ten to twenty years should be to rebuild the education system so as to dedicate all work in schools, all management, and all district, state, and federal K­12 education expenditures and activities to improving teaching and learning as measured by suitable standards for student achievement and teaching practice. Interim steps toward this reconception of the teaching job and school organization would include the following:

1. Identifying Existing Expenditures

States and districts should work with teacher and community organizations to identify current expenditures specifically dedicated to teachers' professional development, reallocate existing expenditures as appropriate to realizing expanded teachers' roles, and determine the needed level of expenditure for professional development to accomplish student success. New or enhanced entities for local partnerships, such as those described in Chapter IV, should allocate district and community funds for supporting teachers' professional development.

2. Establishing Appropriate Measures of the Effectiveness of Expenditures

Districts, states, teachers' organizations, and specialized associations should agree on appropriate standards for measuring the effectiveness of public expenditures on professional development.

NFIE will commence at once to support the implementation of these recommendations in model sites throughout the country and invites the profession and the public to join in support of their success.

APPENDIX A: SOURCES OF THIS REPORT

This report is based on two years of observations, consultations, surveys, and other studies. NFIE research staff conducted extensive site visits and interviewed teachers across the country. Research was conducted in collaboration with other national education research organizations. NFIE led a series of discussions and workshops with teacher leaders, read accounts of exemplary professional development experiences written by teachers, interviewed teachers, and commissioned public focus groups. A national survey was conducted for NFIE by Washington-based Greenberg Research, Inc., and The Feldman Group with support from the NEA Research Department and NFIE.

The work preparatory to this report began nearly a dozen years ago when NFIE launched the first of several well-documented programs designed to give teachers and other education personnel the financial resources, skills, and knowledge to lead efforts to improve education. These programs operated on the assumption that school reform and teacher capacity each reinforced and furthered the other. NFIE believed student achievement would improve if teachers had consistent, effective opportunities to enhance their classroom skills, curriculum expertise, ability to work with students from different backgrounds, and exposure to new educational technologies. Grantees found that the quality of teachers' on-the-job learning depended significantly on structural changes that delivered authority over budgets, time, and curriculum directly to those closest to the students. Assessment data from NFIE's Dropout Prevention Program, Christa McAuliffe Institute for Educational Pioneering, and Learning Tomorrow program, repeatedly confirmed this finding (Carlson 1990a; Christa McAuliffe Institute Task Force 1992; NFIE 1987a, 1987c, 1990a, 1992, 1995b; Rockman 1995a, 1995b).

With this program-based knowledge in hand, NFIE began two years of observations, consultations, surveys, and other studies. Following deliberations by NFIE's Board of Directors to define the scope and direction of the research, staff members initiated a series of field observations at selected schools and districts across the country. NFIE chose these sites from a larger pool recommended by the U.S. Department of Education's regional educational laboratories and by an advisory group made up of educational researchers, teachers' organization leaders, and others with expertise in the field.

Site Visits

A research protocol guided a series of structured telephone interviews, followed by visits by NFIE research staff members to sites that represented diverse geographic locations, demographic characteristics, and sophisticated professional development. These sites--schools, districts, and organizations--included the ACT Academy in McKinney, Texas; the Bay Area Writing Project in Berkeley, California; the Bellevue (Washington) Public Schools; the Boulder Valley (Colorado) School District; the Columbus (Ohio) Public Schools; Connelly Middle School in Lewisburg, Tennessee; the Dade County (Florida) Public Schools and the Dade-Monroe Teacher Education Center; the New Iowa Schools Development Corporation; the Pinellas County (Florida) Schools; the Seattle (Washington) Public Schools; and the Tennessee Education Association Technology Classroom. In addition to extensive interviews and observations conducted at these locations, NFIE collected teacher perspectives, documentation, and other data from scores of other schools, districts, and professional development programs across the country. The research protocol developed in conjunction with NFIE's research team guided these inquiries and included questions relating to the characteristics, staying power, cost, governing policies, evaluation, and supervision of the professional development work under examination, as well as its effects on student learning, its use of outside collaborators and resources, its incorporation of new technologies, and its relationship to teachers' organizations and other professional groups.

Other Research Groups

NFIE's research has operated in tandem and collaboration with the National Education Association, the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, the Consortium for Policy Research in Education, the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement and its National Recognition Program for Model Professional Development, the National Education Goals Panel, the American Federation of Teachers, and the Wisconsin Center for Education Research, all of which are concurrently addressing major related issues in building teachers' professionalism and improving public schools.

Discussions and Workshops with Teacher Leaders

NFIE's primary source of data for this report comes from the experiences of teachers and their analyses of what is needed to raise student achievement. NFIE conducted a series of discussions on professional development issues with the National Education Association's Executive Committee, Board of Directors, regional, state and executive staff, UniServ staff, and constituency groups, including the National Council of State Education Associations and the National Council of Urban Education Associations. These meetings yielded essential information relating to the role of advocacy, collective bargaining, and other negotiated agreements on the policies, practices, and structures affecting teachers' on-the-job learning.

Teachers' Essays

Capturing the voices of practicing classroom teachers nationwide, their perspectives, opinions, ideas, observations, and analyses was a major purpose of NFIE's research. In addition to observations of teachers at work in schools and in-depth interviews, NFIE issued a call for accounts of exemplary professional development experiences through the National Education Association's NEA Today. The response to this request provided NFIE with first-person narratives of those events, experiences, and activities most profoundly affecting teachers' professional lives and their students' performance in the classroom. These stories illustrate parts of a larger picture showing the kinds of professional growth experiences that teachers themselves value and find fruitful for their work in the classroom.

Teacher and Leader Survey

These images have been substantially reinforced by a comprehensive survey of experienced NEA teacher-members and elected leaders conducted by Washington-based Greenberg Research, Inc., and The Feldman Group for NFIE with support from the NEA Research Department and NFIE. This national survey is the first ever done of teacher's own definitions of what they value in professional growth and what they think would be most effective to improve their work. The survey is based on 848 phone interviews with teachers who are affiliated with the NEA, have at least three years of full-time teaching experience, and are currently teaching full time. The findings were supplemented with an oversample of 228 NEA members who are appointed or elected leaders and who have had at least three years of full-time teaching at some point in their careers. Data from the survey tell us how and how often teachers engage individually and with their colleagues in professional growth activities, why teachers pursue study throughout their careers, issues of primary concern, and issues and topics teachers consider of greatest importance for them to study.

Survey Methodology

Greenberg Research designed and administered the telephone survey, which was conducted by professional interviewers on February 6 to 9, 1996.

Telephone numbers for these interviews were chosen at random from the list of all NEA members. The list was stratified by state, and each state was represented in the sample according to its contribution to total membership. The nationwide representative sample of 848 members was supplemented with an oversample of 228 NEA members who hold leadership positions. Respondents in this oversample were selected using a list of national, state, and local leaders. The data were weighted by region to ensure that the sample was an accurate reflection of the membership. The sample size with these weights applied was 800 members and 200 leaders, for a total of 1,000 cases.

In interpreting survey results, it should be remembered that all sample surveys are subject to possible sampling error; that is, the results of a survey may differ from those that would be obtained if the entire population were interviewed. The size of the sampling error depends on both the total number of respondents in the survey and the percentage distribution of responses to a particular question. For example, if a response to a given question that all respondents answered was 50 percent, we could be 95 percent confident that the true percentage would fall within plus or minus 3.1 percent of this percentage, or between 46.9 percent and 53.1 percent. Source: Greenberg Research, Inc.

Public Focus Groups

NFIE matched its research on teachers' concerns with an analysis of public attitudes concerning teachers' professional development. The New York­based Public Agenda Foundation conducted four focus groups of the general, nonteaching public at the behest of NFIE during the summer of 1995 in Albuquerque, New Mexico; Birmingham, Alabama; Denver, Colorado; and Fort Lee, New Jersey. Together with our teacher survey, these focus groups allowed analysts to identify areas of consensus between the public at large and the teaching profession. They also helped to gauge public sentiment relating to teachers' on-the-job learning within the context of other educational issues of concern.

APPENDIX B: OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

Chaired by Governor James B. Hunt Jr., of North Carolina and directed by Linda Darling-Hammond, the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (NCTAF) is producing a major national report on teachers' learning and growth, from recruitment to undergraduate and graduate study, induction into the profession, licensure, continuing learning, and midcareer national certification. This commission, comprised of legislators, teachers, administrators and superintendents, teacher educators, union presidents, business leaders, and education researchers, is making major recommendations on the continuum of learning for teachers and the policies and structures that must be in place if every public school child is to have a qualified teacher. The commission's report is a comprehensive review of what is needed to fulfill such a goal. NFIE's report strongly endorses the NCTAF report and urges that its recommendations be carried out to create the basic policy reforms needed to recruit, educate, and sustain excellence in the profession.

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) is developing an important midcareer assessment of teaching performance. This rigorous program can take a year or more of preparation that allows a teacher's peers to review a rich array of the teacher's practice. Now being tested in pilot programs in selected fields, this national certification represents the teaching profession's highest standards. Individual professional development should be judged on a continuum, or developmental record, that includes college degrees earned, performance on entry assessments, licensure, and ultimately, the NBPTS's midcareer certification. Individual growth should go well beyond any minimal recertification requirements, should stretch the teacher's mind, should allow the teacher to specialize in an area of personal interest and talent, and should be pursued with joy and passion. In brief, the work being done concurrently by other groups to improve teacher preparation includes the following:

The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) works to instill rigorous standards for teacher preparation institutions, including new standards for technology use and standards for professional development schools for new teachers. The Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) is a national effort to develop model state standards to judge whether new teachers are performing well enough to enter the teaching ranks. Teachers' specialized professional associations have been active in devising high standards for teaching and student learning in each of the major subject areas and in educational technology, led by the example of the mathematics standards prepared by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. The National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers have been highly supportive of NCATE, INTASC, national certification, and other teacher education and licensure reforms. Professional development schools are being designed to integrate teacher preparation in colleges of education with schools to ensure that veteran teachers work closely and at length with new teachers to induct them into their professional lives. The faculties in these professional development schools see the mentoring of new and prospective teachers as vital to their own continuing professional growth.

Other organizations are also working on ways to extend learning throughout teachers' careers: The Consortium for Policy Research in Education at Rutgers University and researchers at the University of Wisconsin at Madison are looking for ways to change incentives for learning so that they will continue throughout the career rather than just at the start and so that they will equitably acknowledge different roles and compensation for teachers with different levels of expertise and performance. The National Staff Development Council has issued standards for high-quality learning on the job. The National Governors' Association has issued strong calls for changes in state regulations to foster lifelong learning by teachers and to enrich that learning. The Department of Education has included the need for teachers' continuing development throughout the career in its Goals 2000 legislation and has issued guidelines for high-quality professional development for practicing teachers.

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